Anglicisms in German – An Overview with Reference to the Neologismenwörterbuch in the Online-Wortschatz-Informationssystem

Neologisms indicate linguistic changes in the lexicon. Vocabulary is particularly prone to changes since language communities constantly need new words and phrases to denote new facts or circumstances or they require new expressions for concepts already established. New expressions are often borrowed from other languages. English has had a strong influence on German vocabulary in the last decades. Therefore, German has several English borrowings. These anglicisms differ in their degree of integration into the linguistic system and vary, for instance, with respect to usage, style, and diffusion in the language community. With the help of the Neologismenwörterbuch , it is possible to have an overview of neologisms of English origin in German that integrate different areas of language change.

Sibilla Cantarini intensity.The cultural and linguistic influence achieved exceptional growth in the post-World War II period.Particularly from the nineties onwards, English has been diffused into several areas of life.Thus, English vocabulary is part of the everyday language of every German-speaking person today.While some of those lexemes1 come into use only temporarily and in certain restricted areas or for certain purposes only, for example, in advertising, others enter the German language and, after some time, are not recognizable as anglicisms anymore (cf.Busse, 2001, p. 131 f.) as they have lost their exogenous characteristics and have become an integrated, habitual part of the language system (cf.Burmasova, 2010, p. 218).
This article aims to examine the anglicisms since the nineties, in order to provide an overview of these loan expressions and their characteristics.The data is delivered by the online Neologismenwörterbuch.It includes 2,100 new words, phrases, and new meanings that have become part of common German between 1991 and today (Neologismenwörterbuch 2006-).The Neologismenwör terbuch has been accessible online via the OWID (OnlineWortschatzInforma tionssystem Deutsch) portal since 2006.It is an expanding dictionary that continuously receives new word articles on current neologisms, neologisms that have been determined retrospectively, new meanings, and new phraseologisms (cf.Müller-Spitzer, 2008, pp. 8-12).Since the OWID portal focuses on general standard language, the new vocabulary in the Neologismenwörterbuch does not contain terms strictly belonging to technical jargon or language for special purposes (cf.Steffens, 2008, p. 104;Steffens, 2017, p. 282).It documents all new vocabulary since the nineties, that is, the new words, the new phraseologisms, and the new meanings that became widespread in the general language during a given period.The expressions included are determined on scientific and empirical grounds and based on corpora covering written contemporary language (cf. al-Wadi, 2017, p. 174).To distinguish the neologisms from occasional occurrences of new expressions or meanings and to fulfil the common language crite-1 Lexemes are linguistic units with independent lexical meaning.This includes all inflected variants of these units, e.g., [der] Mann, [des] Mannes, [dem] Manne, [die] Männer (Kessel & Reimann, 2010, p. 61).Inflected variants are attributed to lemmas that are regarded as basic forms of words (Lemnitzer & Zinsmeister, 2015, p. 65).Words constitute smaller units than word groups or phrases.However, fixed formations of words with a lexicalized meaning, such as Antwort geben have closed semantics; thus, such word groups are called lexemes, too.Whereas word and lexeme meaning correspond to each other, the phrasal meaning of word group lexemes is not necessarily composed of the individual word meanings in the phrase (cf.Herberg, 1980, p. 143 f.).Particularly in phraseologisms such as jemanden in die Pfanne hauen or sich etwas durch die Lappen gehen las sen, the meaning of the whole phrase cannot be derived from the meanings of the individual lexical units (cf.Haspelmath, 2011, p. 36).NEO.2023.35.07 p. 3/18 Anglicisms in German -An Overview with Reference… rion, the entries in the dictionary must show a certain distribution in the corpora they were drawn from (cf.Steffens, 2017, p. 284 f.).
The degree of integration into German usage can be determined, among other things, by the integration into the norms of the German language.Accordingly, new lexemes occurring in the German language are included in the dictionary.They can be ascertained by the fact that they are found with a certain frequency and in various texts or sources.Particularly in the case of anglicisms, the degree of adaptation to the norms can be observed in various areas, such as pronunciation, spelling, and inflexion.For instance, the German noun Wave board is pronounced ['veːfbɔɐ̯ t] instead of English ['weɪvbɔːd].Furthermore, the German word is adapted to German spelling with capitalisation and the compounding of two nouns, and fits into the inflectional system by using the genitive -s as in des Waveboards.In this lexical area of anglicisms, it is also apparent that quotation marks, italics, or similar boundary signals marking a word as new and (yet) unusual are being dropped over time (cf.Steffens & al-Wadi, 2015, p. XIV f.).
In addition, the neologisms include pseudo-anglicisms.These are German formations appearing as if they were of English origin, for example, Gigaliner or Handy (cf.Steffens & al-Wadi, 2015, p. XV).On the one hand, the dictionary labels pseudo-anglicisms and, on the other hand, it points out the source of the expressions, for instance, that the pseudo-anglicism Servicepoint is translated into English with "information desk" (cf. al-Wadi, 2013, p. 22).
The extended search in the Neologismenwörterbuch includes several characteristics like time of appearance, the origin from other languages, the origin by type (loanword, semantic loan, loan translation or interpretable as such, partial loan translation, loan transfer, pseudo-anglicism and translation of a loan word).The word formation section distinguishes different types, that is, different compounds and derivations, abbreviations or particle verbs (Präverbfügungen), between different constituents, that is, different parts of speech as constituents of compounds, linking elements (Fugenelemente), affixes and abbreviations, as well as between different kinds of word formation productivity, that is, in compounds, derivations, abbreviations or particle verbs (cf.Neologismenwörterbuch 2006-: Erweiterte Suche).
To analyse anglicisms in the Neologismenwörterbuch a categorization is necessary.The categorization applied here is guided by criteria formulated by Busse (2001) and Burmasova (2010), briefly explained in the following section.NEO.2023.35.07 p. 4/18 Sibilla Cantarini

Partes orationis
It is often stated that borrowed lexical units mostly belong to the parts of speech (partes orationis): nouns, verbs, adjectives, and adverbs.In her investigation, Burmasova (2010, p. 217 f.) could not attest to adverbs and, following functional aspects, assigned participles either to the category of verbs or to the category of adjectives.One result of the comparison of anglicisms in two German newspaper corpora from 1994 and 2004 was a significant increase in both the number of borrowed nouns and verbs, while the variance changed only slightly for both categories.The variance indicates that the use of nominal or verbal anglicisms did not change significantly or, to put it differently, the increase in numbers was not equivalent to an increase in use.The analysis of the adjectives in the corpora showed that adjectives were in use only sporadically.These results in growth rate concerning nouns, verbs, and adjectives contradict the common opinion that nouns are borrowed far more often than other parts of speech, an assumption relying on absolute figures only without consideration of growth rate and variance (cf.Burmasova, 2010, pp. 223-227).

• Direct Borrowings
Direct borrowings probably constitute the type of borrowing occurring most often.This includes simple and compound words like Babysitter, Bowling, and Engineering or elements like mini-or super-.Some of those direct loans were adopted via further languages, especially French (e.g., Budget or Jury).Some of the direct loans are still recognizable as anglicisms because of their orthography and/or pronunciation, (e.g., Bowling or Job), while others are fully integrated into NEO.2023.35.07 p. 5/18 Anglicisms in German -An Overview with Reference… the norms of German language use (e.g., Boot [boːt]) and, what is more, form different derivations like Test > testen, Tester and compounds like Testverfahren.It is not necessarily the case that only older borrowings belong to the fully integrated end of the continuum and only younger ones are to be found at the partly integrated end.The morphological, phonological, and/or orthographic integration of borrowings and their degree of common acceptance can undergo different stages and, over time, this process can be accompanied by several variants, especially with regard to pronunciation but also in their morphological integration, cf.Teste, the more seldom plural variant of Test (cf.Busse, 2001, p. 135 f.).

• Substitutions and Loan Translations
Substitutions reproduce English expressions, for instance, simple and compound words like Flutlicht < flood light, phrases like stehende ovationen < standing ovations, in einem Boot sitzen < to be in the same boat and word formation elements like -sicher < -proof.Besides such morpho-semantic borrowings, substitutions and loan translations can also include semantic borrowings resulting in new meanings of existing words (e.g., realisieren < realize) (cf.Busse, 2001, p. 136 f.).

• Partial Substitutions
Partial substitutions are nominal compounds like Campingplatz < camping site or Nonstopflug < nonstop flight and particle verbs (e.g., einchecken).It might be possible to distinguish cases with an English equivalent, for example, Compu terspiel < computer game that probably has been borrowed as a whole, from cases like Managerkrankheit, thus loan word formations revealing the productivity of the original English part that do not adapt an English example.The decision in those cases depends on the documentation of lexical change in dictionaries.A further category considers derivations with an original German element, for instance, Computerei, stressig (cf.Busse, 2001, p. 137 f.).

• PseudoAnglicisms
Pseudo-Anglicisms do not have formal or semantic English equivalents but are German coinages formed with English means of word formation, for example, Dressman (Engl.male model), Handy (Engl.mobile or cellular phone).Some of those lexemes are formed in analogy to formerly borrowed English loans, for instance, Showmaster (from Quizmaster) or Pullunder (from Pullover) (cf.Busse, 2001, p. 138 f.).NEO.2023.35.07 p. 6/18 Sibilla Cantarini Among the possible morphological operations are abbreviations of simple words like Profi < Professional (Engl.professional > pro), short forms of compounds like English cocktail party> German Cocktailparty > German Cock tail, and short forms of phraseologisms or multi-word lexemes like English last but not least > German last but not least > German last not least (cf.Busse, 2001, p. 139).

• Reborrowings
Reborrowings usually involve semantic change.They are attestations of the cultural and lexical exchange between language communities.However, they do not seem to occur very often.German examples are Hamburger < hamburger "steak" < Hamburger "inhabitant of Hamburg" and Superman "superhero" < superman < Übermensch after the specific use by philosopher Friedrich Nietzsche (cf.Busse, 2001, p. 140, OED Online: "Hamburger, n. ", "superman, n. ").

• Internationalisms or Eurolatinisms
There are some lexical or word formation units, mostly of Ancient Greek or Latin origin, that are widespread in many languages, like Administration, Glob al, Telegram, super-, and ultra-.Formally, they do not seem to have an English source.However, it is possible to classify such expressions as anglicisms if English influence initiated the revitalisation of a former usage or the usage frequency has increased.It can be noticed that internationalisms having entered the German language through English usually retain their spelling but become integrated in phonological and phonetic respects (cf.Busse, 2001, p. 140 f.).Burmasova (2010, p. 216) also argues that the more distant etymology should not be decisive in determining an anglicism but the immediate source language from which a lexical unit was borrowed.

Semantics
It cannot be expected that the entire semantic range of meanings of English is transferred in the course of borrowing.This is what a comparison of the word meanings of anglicisms with their English-language models reveals.Rather, usually, one meaning for a specific context is borrowed.In the case of multiple borrowings, different borrowings of the same language sign come along with borrowings of different meanings at different points in time, for example, Twist "darning NEO.2023.35.07 p. 7/18 Anglicisms in German -An Overview with Reference… thread" and "dancing style." In other cases, anglicisms, having gained a foothold in German, are influenced by their semantic field and develop meanings they did not have originally in English.Those anglicisms develop semantics of their own independently from the original language and are subject to the same conditions of language change as German lexical units (cf.Busse, 2001, p. 139).

Sociolinguistic and Pragmatic Aspects
As the examples so far illustrate, formal integration into the linguistic system is a process during which borrowings are distributed across the language community and incorporated into usage.Thus, it is not necessary that a borrowing is fully integrated into the linguistic system to be classified as a common expression.Borrowings may receive German linguistic characteristics before they become usual expressions, whereas widespread expressions can still exhibit formal exogenous characteristics of their original language, especially in the areas of phonology or morphology.For this reason, from a synchronic perspective, a decision on the integration degree should take into account sociolinguistic and pragmatic aspects (cf.Burmasova, 2010, p. 219).
The degrees of distribution and acceptance of lexical borrowings can be approached by considering their use and their possible restrictions to certain areas or contexts.A typology of anglicisms should take into account their usage by speakers and writers to come to an estimate of their (sociolinguistic and pragmatic) status within the language system.Their usage can be described by their frequency, their acceptability, and their social and stylistic distribution.A combination of acceptance, frequency, and formal integration can result in different categories.
Category 0: The least degree of distribution and acceptance can be supposed only if speakers with a high command of both German and English can understand the English word and hence use it as a quotation in code-switching settings.In other cases of this category, the English words are known but only applied to refer to foreign circumstances, objects, or roles that cannot easily be transferred to situations in German-speaking countries and therefore retain the form they bear in the English-speaking world.For instance, this holds for Detective Superintendent in crime novels, College or Earl.Examples like (ironizing) Sheriff or -gate (after Nixon's Watergate) illustrate that such exotisms can be transferred to German and the cultural conditions of the language community (cf.Busse, 2001, p. 141 f.).Thus, while expressions in category 0 are not to be considered as a fixed part of the German linguistic system, they may enter the German NEO.2023.35.07 p. 8/18 Sibilla Cantarini language in particular contexts.In general, a more regular use of borrowings with a lower variance across different contexts indicates that the sociolinguistic integration process moves forward.In contrast, a high variance in a new expression's occurrence suggests that it is used only once in a while (cf.Burmasova, 2010, p. 221 f.).
Expressions in categories 1 and 2 are restricted in usage with respect to style, frequency, group languages or registers, for example, advertising, youth language, oral vs. written language, or certain professional groups.Words in category 2 can be distinguished by their acceptance and a broader diffusion in different contexts and stylistic levels.Nevertheless, their English origin is still recognizable in their form, that is, their spelling, pronunciation, or morphology (e.g., Jeans, Thriller) (cf.Busse, 2001, p. 141 f.).With regard to spelling, pronunciation, and/ or morphology, words in category 3 are not recognisable as being of English origin anymore (e.g., Boot, Sport, Humor, Pudding, Rum).Words in category 4 are formally identical to established German words, only that their semantics have been transferred from English, for instance, Maus ("Arbeitsmittel am Computer") (cf.Busse, 2001, p. 143).Busse (2001, p. 143) points out some specific features of anglicisms in German.Firstly, their distribution across the lexicon is not consistently even.Secondly, the majority can be regarded as terminology of languages for special purposes and, except for data processing and communication technology, they are not widespread, not fully integrated, not stylistically marked and are more likely to be found in written language.Thirdly, another group of anglicisms in German are vernacular.They are also restricted to certain areas, namely youth language, journalism, and advertising.They are more likely to be found in spoken language and, although their semantics are vague for many speakers, they are prestigious.
According to Burmasova, it is hard to assign anglicisms to specific subject areas since many expressions are part of the general vocabulary, polysemous (cf.Burmasova, 2010, p. 217), or are not specific to certain subject areas (cf.Burmasova, 2010, p. 223).However, the distribution by topic is not pointless.It may demonstrate whether anglicisms are concentrated in certain subject areas or if they are evenly distributed across all areas.This can allow for assumptions about the course of their integration process (cf.Burmasova, 2010, p. 217).Burmasova, for instance, could observe an increase in nearly all topic areas (Politics, Economics, Sports, Culture, Science and Technology, and Society) except the section Science and Technology (cf.Burmasova, 2010, p. 223 f.).NEO.2023.35.07 p. 9/18 Anglicisms in German -An Overview with Reference…
Among the new lexemes, there are no phraseologisms but only single and compound words.348 of the anglicisms emerged in the nineties, 215 during the first decade of the 21st century, and a further 177 during the second decade.The anglicisms include the six short-time expressions Ins, Outs, Showview, Skymarshal, Vatileaks, and WAP.While borrowings and pseudo-anglicisms contribute to the expansion of the lexicon, short-time words fall into disuse after a short while and are not involved in the expansion of the lexicon (cf.Steffens, 2017, p. 275).

Partes orationis in the Neologismenwörterbuch
With 659 entries out of 740, the majority of the anglicisms in the dictionary have nominal status.In addition, there are 59 verbs, 12 adjectives, 5 adverbs, and 2 interjections.3 entries do not have grammatical status at all: at ("Gliederungszeichen"), XL, XXL.Thus, on the one hand, the borrowings' syntactic status goes beyond nouns, verbs, and adjectives.On the other hand, the often-cited finding can be confirmed that, in absolute figures, nouns form the majority of borrowings from English.NEO.2023.35.07 p. 10/18 Sibilla Cantarini

Types of Borrowing in the Neologismenwörterbuch
Among the new expressions, 669 expressions can be classified as loan words (e.g., Attachment, Clickbait, Hoodie, Scripted Reality, or Sitcom).In the dictionary, the phrase "loan word" from English is understood as a word borrowed from English that has been adapted to the German linguistic system and may still bear features of the source language.In addition, the anglicisms include five new meanings: Exit, Framing, ghosten, Pushback, and Update.For instance, the verb ghosten has the new meaning "eine Beziehung oder Freundschaft plötzlich beenden, indem man sich aus jeglicher Kommunikation zurückzieht." According to the dictionary entry, this semantic loan emerged under the influence of English to ghost used in its most recent meaning.New meanings, that is, the new semantics of a lexeme already established, may be accompanied by notes on the older or former meaning.In the case of a loan word and in the case of a new meaning to an established lexeme, the immediate language of origin is usually given for the entry.The English words on which the loan words are based are usually traced back to their basis and/or constituents and provided with their semantics (cf.Neologismenwörterbuch 2006-: Benutzerhinweise/Herkunft).
Furthermore, there are some entries that were formed in German and are presented as such in the dictionary, for instance, Blogger, a derivation from the verbal anglicism bloggen.As there is also an English noun blogger with the same meaning, there is a note in the word formation section of the entry Blogger in the dictionary that Blogger can be interpreted as a loan word.An analogous case would be Tabatatraining after English Tabata training (cf.Neologismenwörter buch 2006-: Benutzerhinweise/Wortbildung).
There are no dictionary entries explicitly classified (and searchable in the extended search) as loan translations, partial loan translations, loan transfers, or translations of a loan word.The reason might be that the exact status of lexemes likely to be categorised as loan translation, partial loan translation, loan transfer, or translation of a loan word is not clear yet and needs further observance.However, there are some examples of possible loan translations among the words classified as anglicisms, for instance, Samenbombe formed after seed bomb, zwitschern after twittern or to twitter or Biodrucker, which, according to the dictionary, is translated from English bioprinter.Other loan translations are not to be found among the anglicisms in the dictionary, for example, Helikop tereltern which however is explicitly described as being translated from English helicopter parents.
Although strictly speaking, pseudo-anglicisms do not belong to the anglicisms among the German neologisms, they are related to them because the lexical or NEO.2023.35.07 p. 11/18 Anglicisms in German -An Overview with Reference… semantic source material drawn back to is of English origin (cf.Steffens, 2017, p. 277).In German usage, the borrowed material has a new meaning or receives an additional meaning (cf.Neologismenwörterbuch 2006-: Benutzerhinweise/ Bedeutung und Verwendung).The pseudo-anglicisms in the dictionary (e.g., Bowl, Callin, Factoryoutlet, flashen, Onliner, Outlet, Pad, Slackline, Speeddating) are classified as words of English origin, as pointed out above.For instance, according to the dictionary, Best Ager denotes a middle-aged person with purchasing power and physical and mental strength in German.The noun emerged in the first decade of the 21st century.In English, however, the appropriate expression would be "consumer older than 40" (cf.Neologismenwörterbuch 2006-: Best Ager).
The degree of morphological integration2 may vary between low, moderate, and high.High integration can be observed with SMS, which has the two meanings "Kurzmitteilung" and "Dienst." With the meaning of "Kurzmitteilung" SMS has German plurals (SMS, SMSe, SMSen), produces derivations (simsen), and is productive in forming nominal compounds as a head word, for example, Gratis SMS, HandySMS, WerbeSMS, and as a first word, for instance, SMSParty, SMS Sucht, SMSVersand.With the meaning "Dienst" SMS has no gender and the masculine gender in the IDS text corpora of the nineties is only documented for the long form.It produces derivations (simsen) and nominal compounds as a first word, for example, SMSDienst, SMSfähig, SMSMeldung, SMSNachricht.An example of a moderate degree of morphological integration is Trainspotter, an expression with genitive -s and German plural (Trainspotter), a rather low productivity in compounding as a first word, for example, Trainspotterfach buch, Trainspotterszene, and no derivations.Aquacycling is an example of low degree of integration; it can take the German genitive -s (but also the genitive form Aquacycling is attested) and only seldom is involved in compounds (e.g., Aquacyclingkurs).

Semantic Change
The Neologismenwörterbuch documents semantic change and distinguishes between neologisms with different meanings and neologisms with older meanings that are not explicitly presented in the entries of the dictionary (cf.Neologis menwörterbuch 2006-: Benutzerhinweise/Lesart).
New meanings have already been mentioned earlier.Among the anglicisms there is, for example, the lexeme Pushback (after English pushback) "häufig gewaltsames Zurückschieben bzw.Zurücksenden von Flüchtlingen gegen ihren Willen bei Grenzübertritten, " while earlier, the word denoted more generally the "act of pushing something back" (OED online: "push-back, adj.and n. ").Another 2 Although in this article we do not deal with phonological aspects for reasons of space, it should be noted that it is unlikely that neologisms as new words with a certain usage frequency in general language retain their original pronunciation.For instance, a pronunciation comparison reveals minor vocal differences between British English attachment ([əˈtatʃm(ə)nt], OED online) and German Attachment ([ɛˈtɛʧmɛnt], Neologismenwörterbuch; [əˈtɛʧmənt],DWDS).However, other expressions and their pronunciation like twerken are far more integrated in the German phonological system.NEO.2023.35.07 p. 13/18 Anglicisms in German -An Overview with Reference… example is the word Framing, according to the Neologismenwörterbuch originally a term for the embedding of frames in websites.The term became more widespread denoting "stark auswählende, in eine bestimmte Richtung deutende Aufbereitung von Informationen mit dem Zweck der Meinungsbeeinflussung." Zerealien is another case documenting the development of a new meaning.Moreover, the noun could even constitute a pseudo-anglicism.Formerly a German word borrowed from Latin that referred to the grain, it refers to the ingredients of a breakfast dish now.According to the dictionary, the new reference to breakfast has been promoted by advertising and could have been influenced by the English language (cf. the corresponding meaning of English cereals).
The Neologismenwörterbuch takes into account several procedures of semantic change: metaphorisation, metonymisation, appellativation, generalisation, specialisation and euphemisation (cf.Neologismenwörterbuch 2006-: Erweiterte Suche/Weitere Merkmale).Currently, only metonymisation, metaphorisation, appellativation, and generalisation are relevant for the anglicisms documented in the dictionary.Metonymisation is the process that changes the semantics of an expression by meaning transfer.The transfer takes place because of a factual relation between the source concept and the new concept, for example, temporal, local, instrumental, etc. (cf. Seiffert, 2017a).Entries in the dictionary that underwent metonymisation are Bitcoin, Blu Ray, Bodypainting, Bodypiercing, Bookondemand, Bowl, BRIC, BRICS, Cranberry, EBook, EPaper, Escaperoom, Hype, MMS, Onliner, Paintball, Piercing, Powerplate, RFID, Second Screen, Sexting, SMS, Spoiler, Startup, Takeaway, Workout, Zentangle.For instance, Takeaway has two meanings "(frisch zubereitetes) Schnellgericht zum Mitnehmen" and "Straßenverkauf für (frisch zubereitete) Schnellgerichte, Snacks bzw.Imbisslokal, Restaurant mit Straßenverkauf, " and the relation between the two readings is metonymic.Metaphorisation also employs semantic transfer; however, it takes place because of a relation of similarity between the source concept and the new concept (cf.Seiffert, 2017b).There are two entries in the Neologismenwörterbuch as far as the process of metaphorisation is concerned: Pad and flashen.Flashen has the two meanings "blitzen, wie ein Blitz kommen bzw.wirken" and "emotional berühren, begeistern, beeindrucken" that clearly have a metaphoric relation.Generalisation is the process leading to altered semantics by omitting one or some meanings, while, at the same time, generalising one specific meaning (cf.Wischer, 2021).In the dictionary, this is the case, for example, for the anglicism unplugged whose meaning "unverstärkt" was generalised to "authentisch." Other examples are Factoryoutlet, outen, Outing, Outlet, and Update.Appellativisation is the process of a proper name becoming a common noun.This process can happen when a brand name or a proper noun becomes so commonly used NEO.2023.35.07 p. 14/18 Sibilla Cantarini that it starts to be used as a generic term for a particular type of product or service (cf.Nübling et al., 2012, p. 49 ff.), this is the case with words like Chuck, Croc, EReader, Flexibar, Flipflop, Heely, Palmtop, Postit, Powerplate, Rollerblade, Showview, Slush, Smartboard, Spa, Speeddating, Spinning, UggBoot, Waveboard, Whiteboard, Zentangle.Semantic change results in a loss of exogenous characteristics.Therefore, employing such processes is an indication that the language community has integrated the borrowed expressions into their active lexicon and does not treat them as words with a privileged status.

Usage
Information on usage includes pragmatic or sociolinguistic aspects like the restriction of certain group languages or registers or the restriction of oral or written contexts (cf.Neologismenwörterbuch 2006-: Benutzerhinweise/Gruppen sprache, Benutzerhinweise/Kommunikationssituation).There is no categorisation for students' language in the dictionary, however, there are 5 entries attributed to youth language (e.g., Chillout, ChilloutRoom, chillen, dissen, yep), 18 to slang (Szenesprache) (e.g., DJing, Musthave, Rave, raven, Thirtysomething, Twen tysomething), 1 entry to administrative language (PPP, the abbreviation of Public Private Partnership), 39 entries to technical jargon (e.g., Budgethotel, Cashcow, Clickworker, Cloud, Couchsurfer, Coworking, Crowdfunding, Crowdworker, Dark net, Domain, Edutainment, Fixie, fracken, Gettogether, Giveaway, Infotainment, Mikrojob, Second Screen) and 40 as originating from languages for special purposes (e.g., Bracket, Cloudcomputing, Digital Native, Downsizing, ESM, Femizid, Flagshipstore, GenderMainstreaming, High Potential, hosten, Lean Management, NEO.2023.35.07 p. 15/18 Anglicisms in German -An Overview with Reference… Malware, ManagementBuyout, Medical Wellness, Nutriscore, Overtourism).Lastly, 6 entries are categorised as occurring mostly orally (e.g., at, buzzern, nice, Update, ups, yep) and 1 entry as being used in written language (politically cor rect).The word Geoblocking is classified both as technical jargon and as originating from a language for special purposes.Particularly the developments in the area of terms exhibit that anglicisms can diffuse from the original usage as terms of a language for special purposes to a more common usage in German not strongly restricted to specific areas.

Frequency and Diffusion
Frequencies and diffusion in different areas of communication indicate the significance and acceptance of borrowings in different areas and point to the degree of integration into the German language.One example is the borrowing Aftershowparty (after English after show "after the show" and party "party") is a formation analogous to several similar formations containing Party as a second component and the first component determining the party's occasion, like Aftercon certparty, Aftercontestparty, Afterfilmparty.These nouns emerged from the nineties onwards; the new lexeme Aftershowparty joined this group with significant usage beyond sporadic occurrences only in the first decade of the 21st century.Its first occurrences were in 1995 with a relative frequency below 0.05 per 1 million words and the peak in relative frequency, for the time being, in 2014 at 0.9 per 1 million words.Between 1995 and 2004, the relative frequency slowly rose to the value of 0.5 per 1 million words and then between 2005 and 2014 reached its peak; after 2014 the relative word frequency decreased to about 0.65 between 2015 and 2019, before the frequency per 1 million words saw a drop below 0.3 in 2020.Both the rise in frequency and the number of parallel, analogous formations are indications that this group of words and the formation pattern found acceptance in the language community and diffused in general use.Other examples can be found among those words or expressions originally restricted to a language for special purposes, as already noted, or a group language that spread to more general use and hence saw a growth in frequency.Frequency is an important criterion for the degree of acceptance and diffusion in general language.Its development should be observed over a longer period and noticeable changes in frequency should be related to extra-linguistic developments.Temporal distribution of usage frequency is given for each entry in the dictionary.
The degree of acceptance and the diffusion in general language use can be low, moderate, or high as well.It can be determined by examining the usage NEO.2023.35.07 p. 16/18 Sibilla Cantarini restrictions to a group language like technical jargon (e.g., Fixie, "minimalistisch ausgestattetes Fahrrad mit starrer Nabe, ohne Gangschaltung und ohne Bremsen, das nicht für den Straßenverkehr zugelassen ist"), street slang (e.g., Rave, "große, zeitlich ausgedehnte Tanzparty in einer Location oder im Freien, besonders Technoveranstaltung") or youth language (e.g., funzen, "funktionieren").3For instance, the term BaginBox, a direct loan from English baginbox was originally used only in the language of the catering trade.However, from the middle of the first decade of the 21st century, it occurred in general language use and became more widespread.According to the dictionary, this went hand in hand with the fact that the product bag-in-box gradually began to be offered in retail and, therefore, became more common.

Conclusion
Since 1990, the Neologismenwörterbuch in the OWID has been an expanding dictionary documenting new words, phrases, and meanings for established concepts in general German.English has been a relevant source for neologisms in recent decades.As a result, there are several anglicisms in German everyday language.Based on the dictionary and using criteria from different areas of the language system and of language use, it has been possible to analyse Anglicisms in German since the nineties and obtain a structured overview of them.
Apart from formal criteria concerning partes orationis, morphological processes and integration, types of borrowing, and semantic change, the analysis includes observations about the frequency and diffusion of neologisms in the general language community.The degree of acceptance of neologisms can be assessed by considering possible sociolinguistic and pragmatic aspects such as stylistic markedness and usage restrictions.Particularly the examples in the previous section show that formal integration, frequency, and diffusion in the language community are interdependent.With constant data observation, changes can be determined, for instance, the development from a rather restricted use in languages for special purposes to a more general use or from stylistically marked as colloquial to stylistically unmarked.Both developments can lead to the acceptance of new words and expressions, and they can be accompanied by semantic change.
3 Restrictions to certain topic areas might indicate that expressions are not widespread.Nevertheless, this criterion should not be regarded alone.